The forgotten empire of the Caucasus: how Circassia vanished from the map
Once a powerful confederation of autonomous tribes, Circassia held international recognition from the great powers of Europe. Yet, following a brutal 19th-century war, nearly 97% of its people were exiled or killed, leaving a global diaspora and a legacy of resistance.
Historically spanning the North Caucasus and the northeastern Black Sea coast, Circassia was a complex landscape of autonomous principalities. While a symbolic Grand Prince could be elected from the descendants of Inal the Great—the 15th-century leader who briefly united the tribes—the region functioned as a federal state with a sophisticated four-level governance system, ranging from village councils to a people's council. At its height, the region's population was estimated at 1 million people.
The territory's political status was a subject of intense international diplomacy. In 1739, the Treaty of Belgrade recognized the independence of Eastern Circassia, a status later supported by the Congress of Vienna. By 1837, Circassian leaders were actively seeking formal diplomatic ties with European states, successfully gaining recognition from the United Kingdom. However, during the Russo-Circassian War (1763–1864), the Russian Empire refused to recognize this sovereignty, instead labeling the inhabitants as 'bandits' and 'mountain scum' to justify its conquest.
The aftermath of the war was catastrophic. The Russian conquest resulted in the Circassian genocide, during which an estimated 80% to 97% of the population was either massacred or forced into exile. This created a massive diaspora, with the vast majority of Circassians today living in Turkey and the Middle East; only about 14% remain in the modern Russian Federation. This history is etched into the landscape; for instance, many Circassians believe the 2014 Winter Olympic village in Sochi was built atop mass graves from the 1864 defeat.
Source: Circassia
