The psychology of 'enemies' and why some conflicts are impossible to defuse
In short: Labeling an opponent as an 'enemy of the people' is more than just a political insult. It is a psychological mechanism that embeds conflict into a group's collective identity. Once a rival is defined this way, the path to de-escalation becomes structurally difficult, as the conflict becomes part of who the group is.
The term 'enemy of the people' (hostis publicus) dates back to Imperial Rome, where the Senate declared Emperor Nero a public enemy in 68 AD. Throughout history, it has served as a tool for political repression, allowing regimes to bypass legal norms to target specific groups. In 1794, the French Revolution saw the Revolutionary Tribunal's authority grow via the Law of 22 Prairial, allowing for the execution of 'enemies of the people'—a category encompassing anyone spreading 'false news'.
The Soviet Union under Stalin famously weaponized the term to justify the physical annihilation of perceived threats. Nikita Khrushchev later admitted that the phrase was specifically designed to make it unnecessary to prove ideological errors, allowing for 'cruelest repression' against anyone suspected of hostile intent. In Albania, the term was used to justify the execution of approximately 5,000 people and the imprisonment of nearly 100,000 between 1945 and 1992. Even in modern contexts, the label persists as a tool for dehumanization, used by leaders like Hugo Chávez against media critics and by contemporary figures to target non-system opposition.
Psychological research suggests that 'perceived rivalry' is a distinct and powerful driver of conflict escalation. Rivalry differs from basic 'enemy' views by being tied to 'conflict-related identity relevance.' This implies that a group's collective identity becomes inextricably joined with the conflict when an opponent is seen as a rival. Because the adversary is seen as a fundamental part of the group's self-definition, these types of conflicts are psychologically harder to defuse than those based on mere threat or external perception.
theme-key-value-pairs perspective hidden-mechanisms human-achievement reflective 3 psychology-of-conflict political-history social-dynamics claims The term 'enemy of the people' originated in Imperial Rome as 'hostis publicus'. In 68 AD, Nero was named a 'hostis publicus' by the Senate. S1:p3
S1:p4 Between 1945 and 1992, approximately 5,000 people were executed and 100,000 imprisoned in Albania for being labeled 'enemies of the people'.
Studies in psychology suggest that identity relevance tied to conflict correlates more strongly with perceived rivalry than with perceptions of an enemy. S2:p1 Perceived rivalry uniquely predicts support for conflict escalation above and beyond other enemy-related perceptions. S2:p1
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Sources
- Summary by Intellect · source: Enemy of the people
- Also: Perceived rivalry in intergroup conflict.
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