Why this 11th-century judge argued that outward religious ritual is not enough

Ideas & Philosophy · Published 3 October 2026 Swipe more like this →

In short: Bahya ibn Paquda, a judge in Muslim Spain, noticed that his contemporaries focused entirely on physical religious rituals while ignoring their internal spiritual state. He argued that true faith requires a balance between outward actions and the hidden duties of the heart, creating the first systematic Jewish ethical framework.

Living in the Taifa of Zaragoza in al-Andalus around 1050 to 1120, Bahya ibn Paquda served as a dayan, or judge, at the beth din. While he was deeply immersed in traditional rabbinic literature, he was equally fluent in the scientific and philosophical works of the Arabic, Greek, and Roman worlds. This intellectual breadth allowed him to compose his magnum opus, Al-Hidāyah ilā-farāʾ id al-qulūb, or The Duties of the Heart, around 1080. He felt that existing Jewish literature lacked a coherent system for ethics, leaving many to prioritize the outward observance of halakha—the duties of the body—while neglecting the inner sentiments that should define a religious life.

Bahya’s system was designed to appeal to the heart, aiming to stir the soul rather than merely defend doctrine. He drew on the Islamic system of dialectical theology known as kalām to provide rational proofs for the existence of God, and he was influenced by Neoplatonism through his engagement with Sufi mysticism. By integrating these diverse intellectual traditions, he sought to present a faith that was both lofty and entirely consistent with reason. He believed that without providing such infallible proofs, the Jewish community would fail to be recognized as wise by other nations.

The impact of his work was profound. Judah ben Saul ibn Tibbon translated the text into Hebrew between 1161 and 1180, cementing its status as a classic of Jewish devotional literature. It became widely read across the globe, with portions even recited as part of devotional practice before Rosh Hashanah. Bahya’s focus on interiority—the idea that intentions and attitudes are what truly give value to human acts—left a lasting mark on later thinkers, including Berechiah ha-Nakdan, ensuring that his synthesis of philosophy, mysticism, and law remained a cornerstone of Jewish thought for centuries.

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