How do we actually know that words refer to the same things?

Ideas & Philosophy · Published 7 October 2026 Swipe more like this →

In short: Language is often defined as a system of arbitrary symbols used for social cooperation. But if every word is just a convention, how do we bridge the gap between a sound and the actual object it represents? Exploring the mechanics of meaning reveals a complex web of symbols, senses, and social rules.

At its core, language functions as a system of conventional symbols—whether spoken, manual, or written—that allows humans to express identity, play, and emotion. Scholars like the English phonetician Henry Sweet viewed language as the expression of ideas through speech-sounds combined into words, which then form sentences. This structure mirrors the way individual ideas coalesce into complex thoughts.

However, defining the boundaries of language is notoriously difficult. Linguists Bernard Bloch and George L. Trager described language as a system of arbitrary vocal symbols that enables social groups to cooperate. The term 'arbitrary' is crucial here; it suggests there is no inherent connection between a sound and its meaning, only a shared social agreement. This leads to the study of 'sense' and 'reference'—the distinction between the concept a word evokes and the actual object it points to in the world.

The distinction between different languages also exists on a spectrum rather than a sharp line. While we use the term 'dialects' to describe systems that are substantially different but still allow for some mutual comprehension, the precise limits of mutual intelligibility are hard to define. On an even more granular level, every individual possesses an 'idiolect'—a unique pattern of expression reflecting their specific habits of speech. Ultimately, language is not just about transmitting information, but about the shared games and social structures that allow us to navigate a world of symbols.

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