The first pure fly-by-wire aircraft was built to land on the Moon

Science · Published 20 October 2026 · Updated 21 October 2026 Swipe more like this →

In short: To conquer the lunar surface, NASA had to master a physics problem: how to fly in one-sixth gravity with no atmosphere. They solved it by building an ungainly, open-framed simulator that became the first pure fly-by-wire aircraft to ever fly in Earth's atmosphere.

In December 1961, Bell Aerosystems proposed a flying simulator to help astronauts master the final 200 feet of lunar descent. This design merged with NASA concepts to create the Lunar Landing Research Vehicle (LLRV). The first aircraft to operate entirely via fly-by-wire within our atmosphere, LLRV-1, debuted at Edwards Air Force Base on 8 April 1964. Pilot inputs were transformed into wired signals solely through a connection with three analog computers. NASA had not yet decided on its landing method when Bell first submitted the proposal in late 1961. However, once Lunar Orbit Rendezvous was chosen in July 1962, the design proved to be a near-perfect match for the spacecraft's flight profile.

The vehicle was engineered to trick the human brain into feeling like it was on the Moon. To offset five-sixths of the craft's mass, a gimbaled General Electric CF700-2V turbofan engine pointed downwards supplied sufficient power. Horizontal translation and descent thrust (between 100 and 500 lbf) came from two hydrogen peroxide lift rockets, while three-axis attitude control was managed by 16 minor thrusters to mimic lunar gravity. The open-framed structure allowed for an aircraft-style ejection seat so pilots could escape during a loss of control. During early engine tests, one instance of unexpected thrust actually lifted crew chief Raymond White about a foot off the ground.

The LLRV was essential for mission success; Apollo astronauts attributed their landings largely to this training. Neil Armstrong, who completed his first flights in LLRV-1 in March 1967, later noted that his mission would not have succeeded without such extensive preparation. While the LLRV proved the concept, it was eventually succeeded by three Lunar Landing Training Vehicles (LLTVs) in 1967, which more accurately simulated the Lunar Module's specific flying characteristics for the final certification flights. Before training in these simulators, astronauts were required to complete helicopter instruction. Because NASA had no plans for an Apollo 10 landing, some commanders like Tom Stafford and Gene Cernan never received this specific simulator training.

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