Engineering a machine to reach the coldest temperatures in physics

Space · Published 31 October 2026 Swipe more like this →

In short: To build a quantum computer, scientists must overcome 'decoherence'—the loss of information caused by heat and noise. They do this using dilution refrigerators, machines that push materials toward absolute zero. These devices are so powerful they allow researchers to observe new physics at the edge of what is possible.

The primary challenge in quantum computing is maintaining the stability of qubits, the basic units of information. This stability is threatened by decoherence, where signal noise or interactions with surrounding materials obscure quantum data. To combat this, researchers at Fermilab's Superconducting Quantum Materials and Systems (SQMS) Center use dilution refrigerators to create ultra-low temperature environments. The metallic cavities used for these qubits are made of niobium. These specific components are rooted in Fermilab's history with particle accelerators.

Unlike standard kitchen refrigerators that cool by compressing gases, a dilution refrigerator operates on a different principle: it uses a mixture of helium isotopes. This process allows the machine to reach millikelvin temperatures, approaching absolute zero—the theoretical limit of coldness that is physically impossible to achieve. This cooling method is fundamentally different from the compression techniques found in household appliances. It allows scientists to reach temperatures near zero kelvin.

These machines are essential tools for advancing quantum technology and conducting experiments in new physics. Fermilab is currently constructing 'Colossus,' which will be the largest and most powerful dilution refrigerator ever built at millikelvin temperatures. It will provide 5 cubic meters of space and cool components to approximately 0.01K. The project leverages Fermilab's historical expertise in cryogenics and superconducting cavities, technologies originally developed for massive particle accelerators. By providing unprecedented cooling power and volume, Colossus aims to host a state-of-the-art quantum computer and various other physics experiments. The name Colossus pays homage to a 1940s electronic programmable computer used for codebreaking. This new machine will offer researchers unprecedented room for future experiments.

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