How a nomadic empire’s expansion triggered a massive Qing military machine

In the late 17th century, the Dzungar Khanate rose to become the dominant force in Inner Asia. Their aggressive campaigns threatened to unite the Mongol tribes, forcing the Qing dynasty to launch a series of brutal, high-stakes wars to secure their northern frontiers.

The conflict began in earnest following the death of the Dzungar leader's brother in 1687, which Galdan Boshugtu Khan used as a pretext to invade eastern Mongolia. This campaign devastated the Khalkha tribes, sending 20,000 refugees fleeing into Qing territory. The Qing, having recently secured the Treaty of Nerchinsk with Russia, were positioned to intervene without fear of a Russian-Dzungar alliance.

The wars were characterized by sophisticated gunpowder warfare and immense logistical challenges. During the 1696 campaign, the Kangxi Emperor personally led 32,000 men, supported by 235 cannons mounted on camels. While the Dzungars utilized 'Zamburaks'—miniature cannons mounted on camels—the Qing relied on heavy artillery and musketry. Despite being outnumbered 5 to 1 at the Battle of Ulan Butung in 1690, the Dzungars successfully repelled Qing assaults using a defensive 'camel wall.'

The ultimate defeat of the Dzungar military force occurred at the Battle of Jao Modo in May 1696. The Qing victory was decisive, resulting in the capture of 40,000 cattle and 20,000 sheep, and the near-total destruction of the Dzungar army. While the exact end of Galdan remains debated—with some accounts suggesting suicide in 1697 and others suggesting death by disease—the geopolitical landscape was permanently altered. The Qing successfully annexed vast territories, including Outer Mongolia, Tibet, and Xinjiang, establishing a frontier that endured until the dynasty fell in 1911–1912.

Source: Dzungar–Qing Wars