The evolution of a slur: how 'traitor' became a tool of statecraft
In short: In Chinese history, the term hanjian is more than just a word for traitor. It is a shifting political weapon that has redefined who belongs to the nation and who is cast out as an enemy from within.
The term hanjian first emerged during the Ming dynasty (1621–1630) to describe Han Chinese who colluded with southwestern Yi people during the She–An Rebellion. Early records, such as those by ministers Yang Sichang and Zhu Xieyuan, framed these individuals as internal instigators who exploited their perceived superiority to incite 'barbarian' uprisings. In this era, the term was rooted in ethnic dynamics: it targeted Han Chinese who aided non-Han groups against the imperial state.
As dynasties shifted, so did the definition. By the Qianlong era, the label expanded to include anyone harming national interests—including non-Han peoples assisting vassal states or Han people extorting minorities. During the 1911 Revolution, it took a sharp turn toward anti-Manchu propaganda, rebranding 'hanjian' as any Han Chinese who acted as accomplices to the Qing dynasty. This illustrates how the term functions not as a fixed moral category, but as a flexible tool of political legitimacy.
The modern definition solidified during the Second Sino-Japanese War. It became a conflation of political and ethnic identity used to brand collaborators with Japanese forces. While some collaborated for wealth or power (the 'educated' hanjian), others were driven by extreme poverty and ignorance. The resulting legal purges, such as those in 1937, established strict punishments regardless of gender or age, while popular discourse weaponized the term into a highly gendered vocabulary to attack suspected collaborators.
Today, the word remains politically potent. It is used rhetorically by nationalists to label supporters of independence movements or those with 'spiritually Japanese' sympathies. From the execution of Ming general Wu Sangui to the modern branding of political rivals, hanjian serves as a mechanism for defining the boundaries of loyalty and the consequences of perceived betrayal.
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Sources
- Summary by Intellect · source: Hanjian
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