For centuries, the Ottoman Empire struggled to maintain control over the rugged Yemeni highlands.
In short: Between 1538 and 1911, the Ottoman Empire engaged in a protracted series of conflicts to subdue the Zaidi tribes of Upper Yemen. Despite repeated military campaigns and administrative shifts, the Ottomans faced persistent resistance, culminating in the Treaty of Daan, which defined a fragile, temporary vassal status for the region.
The Ottoman interest in Yemen began shortly after the collapse of Mamluk rule in 1517. Their first attempt to assert authority occurred in 1538, but the empire struggled to secure the northern highlands, where Zaidi imams maintained control over key strongholds like Sa'dah and Shaharah. By the late 16th century, internal administrative instability—marked by the division of Yemen into separate provinces under Murad Pasha and Hasan Pasha—triggered a major rebellion led by the Zaydi leader Al-Mutahhar in 1567. Ottoman commander Sinan Pasha responded with a massive military effort in 1569, capturing cities like Ta'izz, Aden, and eventually Sana'a, yet the region remained volatile.
The 19th century brought renewed Ottoman efforts, particularly after they were invited to occupy Sana'a in 1872 to stabilize the region. However, this occupation was frequently challenged by local uprisings, most notably in 1891 and 1904. The 1904 rebellion was particularly devastating for Ottoman forces; by December 1905, casualties exceeded 25,000. Despite capturing Sana'a in 1905, Ottoman troops were repeatedly ambushed and forced to retreat from northern territories due to the difficult terrain and relentless guerrilla tactics. Even when they managed to retake cities, they often found themselves besieged again shortly after.
Negotiations became a recurring feature of the conflict, often failing due to broken armistices and mutual distrust. The Imam of Yemen frequently expressed frustration over Ottoman violations of peace terms, while the Ottomans struggled to balance military force with the logistical nightmare of governing such a vast, mountainous territory. The final resolution, the Treaty of Daan signed on 9 October 1911, established Yemen as a vassal state. This arrangement lasted only seven years, as the Imam seized the opportunity provided by the Ottoman collapse during World War I to declare the Mutawakkilite Kingdom of Yemen in 1918.
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Sources
- Summary by Intellect · source: Yemeni–Ottoman conflicts
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