Why India’s centuries-old practice of manual scavenging persists despite multiple federal bans
In short: Manual scavenging—the hazardous, manual removal of raw human excreta—remains an open secret in India. Despite legislation dating back to 1993, the practice is deeply embedded in caste-based social hierarchies. While the government claims progress, activists argue that systemic apathy and the lack of enforcement keep this dehumanizing labor alive.
Manual scavenging involves the manual cleaning, carrying, or disposal of human excreta from insanitary latrines, open drains, or septic tanks. Historically linked to India's caste system, the work is almost exclusively assigned to Dalits, particularly sub-castes like the Valmiki. This division is also gendered: women typically clean dry toilets in private homes, while men are employed by municipalities to handle sewers and septic tanks. The practice is ancient, with references appearing in texts like the Naradiya Samhita, and was further institutionalized during the British colonial period, which formalized the use of specific communities for waste management.
Legislative efforts to end the practice have faced significant implementation failures. The 1993 Act prohibited the construction of dry latrines and the employment of manual scavengers, yet it resulted in zero convictions over two decades. A more comprehensive 2013 Act expanded the definition to include sewer and septic tank cleaning, but critics like activist Bhasha Singh argue that loopholes—such as the provision allowing work if protective gear is used—allow the government to bypass the law. Furthermore, government budgets allocated for rehabilitation have frequently gone unspent, and official data on the number of workers remains highly disputed, with estimates ranging from hundreds of thousands to millions.
The human cost is profound. Workers face severe health risks, including respiratory disorders, infections, and skeletal injuries, with the average age of deceased sewer workers estimated at around 32 years. Activists like Bezwada Wilson and investigative journalists like Pragya Akhilesh continue to highlight the government's focus on infrastructure over the rights of these laborers. While organizations like the Safai Karmachari Andolan and the Garima Abhiyan work to rehabilitate scavengers, the practice persists in states like Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, and Uttar Pradesh, sustained by a combination of social stigma, economic necessity, and a lack of political priority.
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