Twelve wars over four centuries: the long, slow collapse of the Ottoman Empire
Spanning from 1568 to 1918, the Russo-Turkish wars represent one of history's most enduring rivalries. While the Russian Empire used these conflicts to fuel its rise as a European power, the Ottoman Empire faced a steady decline, eventually leading to the total dissolution of both states after World War I.
The conflict began in 1568, sparked by Ivan the Terrible’s expansion into Kazan and Astrakhan. Early engagements were defined by the struggle for control over the Volga and the Ukrainian borderlands. By the late 17th century, Russia had joined the Holy League, and under Peter the Great, the nation began a period of intensive modernization that shifted the balance of power. While Russia suffered a significant setback during the 1711 Prut campaign, it successfully annexed Azov and secured access to the Black Sea by the end of the 18th century.
The 19th century saw the Ottoman Empire struggle to maintain military parity. Despite efforts to reform, including Sultan Mahmud II’s 1826 destruction of the reactionary Janissaries, the empire faced internal revolts and external pressure. The Greek War of Independence and the subsequent 1828–1829 conflict marked a turning point, as Greece became the first independent state to emerge from Ottoman territory. By the time of the 1877–1878 war, the Ottoman Empire was effectively losing its grip on the Balkans, a process accelerated by the intervention of other European powers at the 1878 Congress of Berlin.
The final phase of this rivalry played out during World War I, where the Ottoman army suffered heavy defeats at Sarikamish in 1915 and Erzurum in 1916. However, the 1917 Russian Revolution halted further expansion. The subsequent collapse of both empires led to the creation of the Soviet Union in 1922 and the Republic of Turkey in 1923. The final border was formalized by the 1921 Treaty of Moscow, ending centuries of intermittent warfare that had reshaped the map of Eastern Europe, the Caucasus, and the Middle East.
Source: Russo-Turkish wars
