The century-long struggle for Nagorno-Karabakh: a history of displacement and shifting borders

Cultures · Published 29 September 2026 Swipe more like this →

In short: The Nagorno-Karabakh conflict is a complex, decades-long territorial and ethnic dispute between Armenia and Azerbaijan. Once a region defined by its Armenian majority, the area has seen repeated cycles of violence, blockades, and mass displacement, culminating in the total exodus of its ethnic Armenian population in 2023.

The roots of the conflict trace back to the dissolution of the Russian Empire, when the Karabakh Council formed in 1918. By 1921, Soviet authorities established the Nagorno-Karabakh Autonomous Oblast within Soviet Azerbaijan. Throughout the Soviet era, Azerbaijani authorities implemented policies to dilute the Armenian majority, including border manipulation and the suppression of Armenian cultural identity. Despite these pressures, Armenians remained the majority population until the region's final incorporation into Azerbaijan.

Tensions escalated into full-scale war following the collapse of the Soviet Union in the early 1990s. Armenian forces, backed by the Republic of Armenia, secured control over the enclave and surrounding territories, leading to hundreds of thousands of displacements on both sides. A 1994 ceasefire brought relative stability, but the 2010s saw a steady increase in border skirmishes. Azerbaijan, bolstered by significant oil and gas revenues, invested heavily in its military, eventually shifting the balance of power.

The Second Nagorno-Karabakh War in 2020 resulted in a decisive Azerbaijani victory, with the capture of key areas including the city of Shusha. Following the war, Azerbaijan imposed a ten-month military siege on the region, cutting off essential supplies and infrastructure. This culminated in a September 2023 offensive that led to the dissolution of the Republic of Artsakh and the flight of the entire ethnic Armenian population. In August 2025, the two nations reached a Washington-brokered agreement aimed at normalizing relations, though significant hurdles—including disputes over detainees and the right of return—remain.

The conflict is marked by competing narratives of self-determination and territorial integrity. While the Karabakh Movement cited Soviet constitutional laws to justify reunification with Armenia, international recognition consistently placed the region within Azerbaijan. Scholars continue to debate the role of external powers and the impact of state-sponsored propaganda, while the humanitarian consequences of the decades-long struggle remain a central point of international concern.

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