Why did the decline of the Ottoman Empire trigger a century of European tension?

History · Published 3 October 2026 Swipe more like this →

In short: Known as the sick man of Europe, the Ottoman Empire’s slow collapse created a power vacuum that terrified the Great Powers. From the 18th century until 1923, European nations engaged in a high-stakes diplomatic and military struggle to prevent rivals from seizing control of the empire’s strategic territories.

The Eastern question emerged as Ottoman military and economic power waned, starting with the loss of the Battle of Vienna in 1683 and the 1699 Treaty of Karlowitz. By the 19th century, the empire’s instability threatened the Concert of Europe, a fragile balance of power designed to maintain peace. European nations, particularly Britain, Russia, and Austria-Hungary, viewed the empire’s potential dissolution as a threat to their own strategic, commercial, and military interests.

The conflict was driven by competing agendas. Russia often sought to expand its influence or gain access to the Dardanelles, while Britain and Austria frequently intervened to preserve the empire as a buffer against Russian dominance. This dynamic played out through crises like the Greek War of Independence, the Egyptian–Ottoman Wars, and the Crimean War of 1853–56. During the Crimean War, Britain and France fought to curb Russian expansionism, eventually forcing Russia to accept the 1856 Treaty of Paris, which neutralized the Black Sea and guaranteed Ottoman territorial integrity.

Nationalism further complicated the issue, as provinces like Serbia sought independence, effectively challenging Ottoman control from within. By the late 19th century, the Eastern question manifested in the Balkan crises of 1875–78 and the Balkan Wars of 1912–13. The issue was finally resolved only after the First World War, which led to the total collapse of the Ottoman state and the subsequent division of its holdings among the victors. In 1923, the modern Republic of Turkey emerged, marking the end of the long-standing diplomatic puzzle that had defined European international relations for nearly two centuries.

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