From a small seed collection to a massive cabinet-level department, how the USDA evolved.

Nature · Published 29 September 2026 Swipe more like this →

In short: Originally established to distribute seeds and collect statistics, the United States Department of Agriculture has transformed into a sprawling federal entity. Today, it manages everything from national forests to nutrition assistance for millions, while navigating complex histories of discrimination, shifting political priorities, and the evolving needs of American agribusiness.

The roots of the USDA trace back to 1839, when Congress allocated $1,000 to the Patent Office for agricultural statistics and seed distribution. Henry Leavitt Ellsworth, who spearheaded these efforts, is often called the 'Father of the Department of Agriculture.' By 1862, Abraham Lincoln signed the Morrill Act, establishing the department as an independent entity. Initially staffed by only eight employees, it was intended to serve a nation where over half the population was directly involved in agriculture. It eventually gained cabinet-level status in 1889 after years of lobbying by farm interests.

Throughout the 20th century, the department expanded its reach through initiatives like the 1887 Hatch Act and the 1914 Smith-Lever Act, which created networks of experiment stations and extension services in every county. During the Great Depression, the USDA became a vital support system, providing loans and technical advice to struggling farmers. However, the agency's history is also marked by significant controversy. Allegations of systemic discrimination against African American, Native American, Hispanic, and female farmers persisted well into the 1990s, particularly within the Farm Service Agency, contributing to a decline in the number of minority-owned farms.

Modern operations are vast, with approximately 71% of the department's $213 billion budget dedicated to nutrition assistance programs like the Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program. The agency also manages about 25% of all federal lands through the Forest Service. Recent years have seen the department pivot toward climate-smart commodities and debt relief, while also facing internal turbulence, such as the 2025 firing and subsequent rehiring of researchers working on highly pathogenic avian influenza. Today, the USDA remains a central, if sometimes contentious, pillar of American governance, balancing the needs of commercial producers with the welfare of the broader public.

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