The secret Soviet-backed rebellion that forged a short-lived breakaway state
In short: In 1944, a violent uprising in northern Xinjiang birthed the Second East Turkestan Republic. Backed by Soviet arms and fueled by ethnic tensions, this rebel state sought to sever ties with China forever. It was a high-stakes geopolitical gamble that reshaped Central Asian borders through fire and blood.
The Second East Turkestan Republic (ETR) emerged in November 1944 following the Ili Rebellion. The movement was driven by Turkic peoples—primarily Kazakhs, who made up over half the population, and Uyghurs—who sought to end Chinese rule. Many of these rebels were Soviet-educated and held deep cultural ties to Russia. Key figures like Ehmetjan Qasimi, described as a "communist-minded progressive," even Russified his name to Kasimov to align with Soviet interests. The rebellion was heavily subsidized by the USSR, which provided ammunition, Russian-style uniforms, and direct military intervention including air support.
The conflict was marked by extreme brutality. After capturing Ghulja in November 1944, the ETR issued a "Ghulja Declaration" promising to "sweep away" Han Chinese civilians to settle a "blood debt." This led to massacres of Han residents and the establishment of a Soviet-style secret police. In retaliation, Kuomintang (KMT) forces engaged in their own cycle of torture and killings. While the ETR sought independence and linguistic rights, its military success relied on approximately 60,000 troops from the East Turkestan National Army and 20,000 Kazakh horsemen, many of whom were Soviet agents or White Russian settlers.
The republic's lifespan was brief. By late 1945, Chinese forces under General Ma Bufang deployed thousands of Muslim cavalry to halt the rebel advance toward Dihua (modern Ürümqi). Although the rebels reached Kashgar and Yarkand, they failed to gain support from local Uyghurs in those oases, who remained loyal to China. The rebellion eventually collapsed due to a shift in Soviet priorities; as the USSR's wartime alliance with the ROC resumed, aid ceased. In June 1946, peace negotiations led to the formation of a coalition government, effectively ending the ETR's sovereign existence.
The legacy of the ETR remains complex. It was not merely a grassroots uprising but a sophisticated geopolitical maneuver by Stalin to reassert Soviet influence in Xinjiang. The rebellion successfully ousted the local warlord Sheng Shicai, who had been a Soviet puppet until 1943, only to be replaced by a different set of pro-Soviet dynamics that eventually folded back into Chinese administration.
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- Summary by Intellect · source: Second East Turkestan Republic
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